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Home > About Us > Collaborating Institutions > SCS > Luce Seminars > 2003"A 'Century of Progress'? Worship and Church Building Design in the Twentieth Century"
Mark A. Torgerson, Ph.D.
Judson College, Elgin, Illinois
© June 2004
The twentieth century has experienced tremendous upheavals in the areas of church building design and worship renewal in the United States . The 1933 World's Fair, "A Century of Progress," held in Chicago, Illinois, provides an example of the spirit behind many of the changes. The theme of the fair was the celebration of Chicago's centennial with a particular focus on the industrial development that had been achieved since 1833. The fair exhibited the best of the "modern" artifacts of its day, emphasizing dramatic shifts in technological advancement. A spirit of expectation accompanied the fair. Great hope was held in anticipation of what humanity might achieve through the refinement and application of technology in the coming years. There was the hope that the ills of the world might be erased in the near future.
"A Century of Progress" provides a wonderful window through which to view the expectations that accompanied church building and worship renewal in the twentieth century. The philosophical "modern" mindset that fueled the 1933 Chicago World's Fair affected the renewal of worship life and church building in the first half of the twentieth century. Belief in an unending notion of "progress," elevation of the rational, rise of the "expert" as the authority, an emphasis on discovering simplified linear connections and relationships between objects, and striving for universal standards and norms, all characterized a "modern" approach. Emphasis fell on the human community and its certain ability to achieve its goals (given enough time and resources) in the "modern" mindset.
Architectural design, under the influence of a "modern" mindset, sought to disconnect itself from historical models and ornamentation. New technologies and building materials were emphasized, seeking to embody a zeitgeist ("spirit of the times") according to an aesthetic of the machine. Idealism pervaded modern architecture. Some architects thought of themselves as a new "prophet" or "savior," establishing designs that they believed would transform human culture (even the nature of the person) for the good. Frequently a single or universal "style" was sought as the solution for all human habitations (whether for housing, employment, education, or recreation). Function was elevated as the guiding principle for establishing form. Simplicity in line and articulation characterized "modern" design. Emphasis lay on the primary form and structure of the building. Basic geometric forms, the exposure of elements, and "honesty" in materials and expression (allowing the nature of materials and expression to remain intact) were pursued. Acknowledgement that future "progress" often required change led some to utilize more open and flexible designs.
The modern architectural impulse was applied to the design of churches from the early decades of the twentieth century, but especially flowered in the wake of World War II. The devastation of many city centers in Europe allowed for the incarnation of many new worship spaces. "Modern" churches began to emerge in designs that did not rely upon iterations of historical models (for example, classical or Gothic expressions). The social functions for which a church might be used were considered primary for designing new buildings. Sometimes multi-purpose spaces were deemed an appropriate "solution" for the needs of particular faith communities. A reduced aesthetic was applied to church design. Simplicity in form and line, significant reduction in symbol, and an increase in the use of natural light accompanied many plans. Dimensions of the new spaces often were tailored to the human community that would use the facilities, emphasizing the people who occupied the church.
The application of "modern" architecture to twentieth century church design came hand-in-hand with the influence of the liturgical renewal movement. Beginning in Europe in the nineteenth century, a growing pastoral concern sought to invigorate the celebrations of liturgy in the Western church. Full and active participation of the people of God, the Body of Christ, was sought. Emphasis on the centrality of the Paschal mystery, the significance of scripture, and the renewal of sacramental life (especially in relation to Eucharist and initiation), were all pursued. A renewed interest in the liturgical practices of the early church brought critical reflection on current practice. The ease of communication and transportation of the twentieth century sparked the acknowledgement and appreciation of multi-cultural expressions, providing numerous new resources for liturgical celebrations world-wide. And a desire to accentuate the common mission and beliefs of numerous manifestations of the Christian church fostered ecumenical dialog and exchanges. In and through these many avenues, emphasis fell on the presence of God in our world through the people of God.
The combination of a "modern" architectural design agenda with the theological and practical concerns of the liturgical renewal movement could be said to have fostered an era of "immanent" church architecture. Throughout the history of the church, we have struggled to comprehend and express the "transcendence" and "immanence" of God. The transcendence of God could be said to reflect the mysterious, awe-inspiring, "otherness" of God's nature. The immanence of God could be said to reflect the truth that God dwells with God's people, especially in and through Jesus Christ (and by extension the Body of Christ or Church, composed of God's people). Architecturally, various designs have been attempted to emphasize both transcendence and immanence. Perhaps late medieval Gothic architecture could be said to primarily emphasize God's transcendence and eighteenth-century Quaker architecture to primarily emphasize God's immanence. Church designs do not generally preclude references to God's transcendence or immanence, but buildings often accent one or the other more readily. The polar opposite nature of transcendence and immanence partially explains the difficulty of fully expressing both at the same time. With the strong emphasis on the function of space and the activity of God's people at worship into the 1970's, a church architecture of immanence came to full expression in the United States.
The document "Environment and Art in Catholic Worship," released in the United States in 1978 by the Bishops' Committee on the Liturgy, National Conference of Catholic Bishops, illustrates the emphasis on immanence in worship space design. The approximately twenty page document, exhibiting few footnotes, provides general guidelines for the consideration of designing buildings that will be hosting liturgical celebrations. The overall emphasis in the document is on envisioning the building that houses the community of the faithful as the domus ecclesiae ("house of the church"). Whereas earlier historical periods may have emphasized the church building as domus Dei ("house of God"), "Environment and Art" sought to accentuate the reality that the building is a "house" for the people of God. The bishops were not negating the building as sacred space, but trying to achieve a counter-balance to an exaggerated emphasis on the space as God's domain. Seven chapters are found in the document. Each chapter is fairly brief, with many suggestions aimed at enhancing the communal celebration of the many liturgies of the community. Simplifying the liturgical environment, elevating the significance of the assembly, and enhancing a general quality of "hospitality," form the core of the document's emphases. "Environment and Art" was an effective tool for pursuing a church architecture approach more reflective of the immanence of God.
Frustration with a "modern" philosophical understanding of the world gained momentum during the 1960's, particularly in literary and architectural circles. Some highlight the destruction of the Pruitt-Igoe Housing development in St. Louis, Missouri, 15 July 1972, 3.32 PM, as the "death" of "modern" architecture. Minoru Yamasaki had designed the housing project which had been built from 1952-55. Yamasaki had followed the most progressive ideals of the Congress of International Modern Architects (CIAM) in generating his design. He had even been given a design award from the American Institute of Architects in 1951 for his Pruitt-Igoe work. Higher than average crime rates in the units and a general dissatisfaction with the aesthetic qualities of the design among the inhabitants contributed to the decision to destroy the buildings. Failure to fulfill the philosophical ideals of the "modern" architectural movement led some to abandon the purist form of design and question the ability of architecture to promote a universal sense of morality.
"Modern" philosophical thought was followed by "post-modern" philosophical reflections. "Post-modern" philosophical thinking generally rejected the idea of an un-ending notion of progress on the part of humanity. Observations that the major problems of the world (for example, disease, poverty, and war) were not resolved by the diligent application of human ingenuity and technology fueled disillusionment with humanity's ability to resolve its troubles. Language itself was found to be primarily a tool that was used to oppress others. Meaning was identified as relative to relationship, ever-changing and evolving. History was found to be merely an artificial construct, never neutral, but always biased toward those who exerted the greater power. The idea of universal, all encompassing theories was rejected. Metanarratives, or grand stories, that address humanity as a whole were rejected. By virtue of the nature of language, people were found to be incapable of conceiving of or articulating any such ideas with justice and equity. People could generate their own "local" stories with integrity, but to extend the narrative further was impossible. Knowledge, previously thought to be inherently "good," was found at times to yield great destruction depending on the one who applied its insights. Metaphysical realities continued to be rejected generally, but also rejected was any notion of objective truth. In short, post-modern thinkers did not find "modernity" to have delivered on its promises of "progress" for all humanity. Injustices were identified and optimism was abandoned.
"Post-modern" architectural design denied many of the primary tenets of the "modern" approach. A universal style was rejected in favor of regionalism. Recognition was made that not all people are nourished by a single aesthetic expression. A pluralistic approach was substituted for a singular approach. Simplicity and the "machine aesthetic" were rejected as "ideal." Complexity in expression and design was elevated, especially in light of the acknowledged variety of aesthetic approaches among the peoples of the world. Shunning historical models was rejected. The purist style of modern design was itself identified as a historical "style." Instead of considering all previous styles of architecture forbidden, post-modern architects sought inspiration from past design solutions. They did not choose to simply replicate past models though. Rather, they combined an awareness of the power of symbol with a willingness to "play." Frequently they emerged with designs that juxtaposed different historical idioms or radically reinterpreted traditional expressions, seeking to embody irony in material form.
Churches designed in light of a more "post-modern" architectural approach tend to use more historical references in their designs, are influenced by regional aesthetic expressions/preferences, and often increase the use of symbol and ornamentation. No one particular historical period of design is thought to have been "ideal" among the post-modern churches. The strengths of various periods are identified and utilized as appropriate to the peculiar context and congregation desiring the building. Attention is placed on the relationship between theological beliefs and symbolic expressions (as it was in the "modern" period), with a wider range of complexity in design articulation. No longer is a uniform approach held to be more appropriate for all Christian communities. Instead, an elaboration of symbolic expression can be pursued once again according to the liturgical expectations of the community. Such increased freedom has allowed for a corrective to designs thought to be too focused on immanence. Transcendence can be emphasized more easily through exaggeration of dimensions of the space, the reintroduction of reduced natural lighting, and elaboration of symbols and ornamentation.
Liturgical reform in the latter part of the twentieth century ("post-modern" liturgical reform, if such a label is helpful) has sought to "correct" some of the over-emphases perceived up to the 1980's. Earlier reform activity has been subject to some critical reflection. Scholars such as Paul Bradshaw and Bryan Spinks have questioned the reductionistic approach of some liturgical scholarship that seeks to discover clear, straight-line, evolutionary paths in the development of historical worship patterns. Manifestations of texts and rituals that do not fit the sought after pattern are sometimes labeled "anomalies" and overlooked as irrelevant in charting historical development. They also question the elevation of a particular historical period as a "golden age" of worship or as an "ideal" source upon which to base worship expressions today. In making these critical observations, Bradshaw and Spinks argue for a more complex understanding of liturgical development, seeking to recognize the complexity and diversity of worship patterns. Implications for worship today would be to urge greater diversity among worship expressions and allow for inspiration from a host of historical epochs.
Other impulses in the liturgical reform movement of the latter half of the twentieth century include: 1) affirmation of the significance of both communal and private worship expressions; 2) the value of a cross-disciplinary approach to worship study and reform; 3) the significance of multi-cultural worship expressions; 4) recognition of the transcendent nature of God as well as immanent nature (seeking "mystery" in worship); 5) a desire to embody meaningful expressions for the people of our world today; 6) recognizing the evangelistic potential of authentic worship expressions; 7) utilization of current technological tools in worship; 8) increased use of the arts in relation to worship; and 9) seeking a "grass-roots" (vs. "top-down" or authority-driven) approach to congregational worship renewal.
In the year 2000, the Bishops' Committee on the Liturgy, National Conference of Catholic Bishops, issued a new document addressing some of the inadequacies found in their earlier statement, "Environment and Art in Catholic Worship." The new document was titled, "Built of Living Stones: Art, Architecture, and Worship." This work was eighty pages in length (four times the length of its predecessor) with extensive footnotes (many including direct references and/or quotes from the General Instruction of the Roman Missal ). The church building itself is referred to as the domus Dei once again, an attempt to address the seeming lack of focus on God's transcendence in "Environment and Art." Historic artistic expressions are mentioned with appreciation, affirming the value of complex and traditional symbolism. Elaboration of the worship environment is sanctioned instead of merely providing an emphasis on simplifying the space. And whereas the primary focus in "Environment and Art" is on the corporate actions of the people in worship, "Built of Living Stones" highlights the importance of individual, private devotions as well.
An attempt is made to strike a balance between corporate and individual requirements in relation to an environment for worship. An example of this phenomenon concerns the location of the Tabernacle (location for the reserved sacrament; a traditional place at which the individual could privately honor/adore Christ). In "Environment and Art" it was suggested that the Tabernacle be located in a side chapel or other space away from the altar so as not to obscure the primary significance of the altar (the traditional location where the gathered congregation meets Christ in worship). In "Built of Living Stones," the Tabernacle is allowed to migrate back toward the altar (near, but preferably not on top of the altar) for the sake of those wish to retain the centrality of private devotional adoration and the significant link between the altar and Tabernacle.
The changes we see between "Environment and Art in Catholic Worship" and "Built of Living Stones" highlight the tensions we are trying to embrace in designing worship environments today. We desire to allow the creativity of the local congregation to find voice (consistent with the theological beliefs of that community and larger tradition), rather than simply applying a universal formula for church design. We seek to remind our parishioners that God is both transcendent and immanent, using various symbols and expressions to reflect these truths. We want to be hospitable to those who worship in our churches, but also bear witness to the world that the message we have is unique and necessary. We wish to facilitate both communal and private worship experiences. We strive to engage a full range of artistic expressions in worship, theologically grounded, without reliance on mere entertainment or novelty. And we hope to discover appropriate ways in which to utilize new technologies, seeking to allow them to be useful tools for ministry versus artifacts that redefine our faith. In all of these ways, we continue to incarnate worship renewal, allowing our churches themselves to be catalysts of honor and praise.