This article explores how physiological and cognitive changes, intra-psychic and interpersonal changes, moral development and social location affect the spiritual lives of children who are 12-36 months old. It considers how the development of autonomy in toddlers relates to the theological concept of free will, discusses language acquisition and its importance for religious expression, and shows how both cognitive capabilities and social location shape religious interpretation. It focuses particular attention on the relationship of intuitive intelligence to religious enculturation, the development of moral consciousness, and the development of a God-concept, drawing on the work of Brueggemann, Colaruso, Erikson, Kagan, Mahler, Piaget, Rizzuto, Sroufe, Stern, van der Ven, and Winncott. It moves across major religious traditions, although the author's primary personal commitment is as a Christian systematic theologian and religious educator, and utilizes years of participatory-observational research in the religious education of young children as practical examples of theoretical points.

Keywords: spiritual lives of children 12-36 months old, development of moral consciousness, concept of God, intuitive intelligence and religious enculturation

How can spirituality be recognized in preschoolers? How do preschoolers express their spiritual being? How can we access this spirituality when interviews are inappropriate, and in-depth conversations are not adapted to their language abilities? These questions need to be answered in order for us to nourish and better sustain young children's spirituality. This article addresses this problem from the perspective of practical theology. It includes both a phenomenological and a hermeneutical approach to the question, and is rooted in the philosophical and theological concept of 'being'. The analysis of data highlights three modes of the child's being: Sensitive, Relational and Existential. It also explores the possible theological meaning of being a child.

Keywords: spirituality in preschool children, practical theology, theological meaning of being a child, three modes of a child’s being

This article examines Finnish nursery teachers' concepts of how the increasingly multicultural nature of society has influenced religious education in nurseries. The data are based on a survey conducted in autumn 1999 (N=306) in two districts in the Helsinki area. The nursery teachers' answers were analysed by content analysis. The teachers focused on the following aspects, which are listed here in the order of their frequencies: (1) The religious backgrounds of the children and their families are taken into account more often than previously; (2) The problems which arise when religious education is actually applied in everyday life; (3) The change to multicultural society has caused a reduction in religious education; (4) Religious education has become multifaceted and rich in meaning; (5) The change to a multicultural society has not caused significant changes in religious education; (6) Religious education which focuses on the individual religions of the pupils has been strengthened; (7) Other aspects.

Keywords: Finland, nursery, multiculturalism, religious education

Currently, few studies address kindergartners' perceptions and understandings of bullying. This study describes 15 Canadian kindergartners' graphic and narrative representations (drawings and stories) of their bullying experiences. Content analysis of the students' drawings and stories explored how they perceived bullying within the context of their lives. In general, findings showed that kindergartners perceive bullying situations as occurring during one-to-one peer interaction and not within social group situations. This study's results are discussed in relation to its socio-emotional, spiritual, and holistic educational implications.

Keywords: kindergarten, bullying, Canada, educational implications

This study examines denominational, age, and gender differences in young children's God concepts. Subjects were 198 Dutch preschoolers (mean age 68 months) whose mothers and schools belonged to six different religious denominations. The mothers were non-affiliated, pentecostal, catholic, Dutch reformed, orthodox reformed, or strictly orthodox reformed. The schools were religiously neutral (state schools), interdenominational (protestant/catholic), catholic, Dutch reformed, orthodox reformed, or strictly orthodox reformed. Children's God concepts were measured using stuctured interviews and were operationalized as spontaneous references to aspects of the Bible and as ideas about potential characteristics of God. Results showed that both maternal and schools' religious denomination have independent effects on children's God concepts which generally correspond to theological descriptions of mainline Dutch religious beliefs. Boys identify God more with Jesus than girls. Older preschoolers perceive God less like their parents than the younger ones.

Keywords: young children (age 5- 6), concepts of God, Netherlands, comparison boys/girls; older/younger, preschool

The spiritual aspect of early childhood education is supported by the early childhood curriculum in Aotearoa New Zealand, Te Whāriki. Research in three different early childhood settings presents new perspectives on the everyday experiences of children in terms of spirituality. Each setting formed a case study that included the voices of children, parents and teachers. Focusing on the practices that surround food and eating, this narrative account takes the sharing of food as a starting point for analysing the spiritual experiences of young children and the metaphor of ‘breaking bread’ is used. It is proposed that the concept of everyday spirituality informs the practice of teachers in each context and working with young children involves considering issues of equity, culture and well-being.

Keywords: Spirituality, Food, Early childhood education, Narrative

This study investigated the relationship between curriculum design and children's learning in church. Participants in this study included 12 six-year-old children attending two different Sabbath school classes in the same Midwestern Seventh-day Adventist church. A traditional curriculum guided instruction in Class 1. GraceLink, a new curriculum, guided instruction in Class 2. Data were collected to document children's attitudes and growth in knowledge of a Bible story. Both classes demonstrated comparable factual and conceptual knowledge growth, although Class 2 achieved these results with fewer storytellers. Children in Class 2 demonstrated more positive attitudes toward Sabbath school and the Bible story.

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This contribution offers an overview of two studies testing two attachment theoretical correspondence hypotheses in the prediction of individual differences in young children's God concepts. The correspondence hypothesis supposes that people's view on God parallels their images of their early caregiver–child relationship. The revised correspondence hypothesis incorporates caregiver religiosity and socialization. In the first study support was found for the correspondence hypothesis in the school context examining 72 preschoolers. In the second study the revised correspondence hypothesis was partly confirmed among 198 kindergarteners. Children cognitively learn about a powerful and comforting, helping God in their homes and schools, even when all relationships with their caregivers are experienced as negative. However, in such a surrounding they do not emotionally learn about an intimate, personal bond with God.

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This study extends prior research on antecedents of individual differences in God concepts in early childhood by examining relations of parents' and teachers' God concepts and religious denomination of schools with children's God concepts. Participants were 165 preschoolers (mean age 63 months), 107 of their parents and 16 teachers. These subjects were distributed over eight elementary schools belonging to four different religious denominations, i.e. Catholic, Dutch Reformed, Orthodox Reformed and State schools. The God concepts of children, parents and teachers were measured using interviews and questionnaires. Results showed that both parents' and teachers' God concepts were predictive of children's God concepts, but each in a different way. Parents seem to influence the relational component of children's God concepts particularly. Teachers especially contribute to biblical content of children's God concepts. Religious denomination of schools had independent effects on children's God concepts, controlling for parental denomination.

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Interest in intergenerational educational strategies in faith communities raises the question of their relationship to the prevalent homogeneous-age group process. This concern is addressed by considering the validity of generational differentiation, by answering two commonly expressed concerns about intergenerational education, and by examining the relationship of developmental theory to education. The conclusion drawn is that intergenerational and homogeneous-age group educational strategies in faith communities should be considered complementary, but with intergenerational approach taking primacy over the age-segregated approach.

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